[28] Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992, p. 231. As the name suggests, cessationist Christians believe that the supernatural gifts have ceased. No products in the basket. The words of the prophet are the words of God and are to be received and responded to as such. An important problem in the dispute between continuationists and cessationists is the difference in understanding of key concepts. Since apostles existed only in the New Testament (Acts 1:22) and since there were supernatural sign gifts given to apostles (2 Cor. How does Spurgeon explain this prophetic ministry? [39] Ruthven writes: To preserve his thesis, without any biblical evidence whatsoever, Warfield insists that Pauls miracle-working power was "original with him as an Apostle, and not conferred by anyone". Affiliate disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, we may earn commissions from qualifying purchases on Amazon.com. [36]:389 Other cessationists would agree with the continuationist interpretations, but disagree with MacArthur about the natural character of the gift of prophecy. I could tell as many as a dozen similar cases in which I pointed at somebody in the hall without having the slightest knowledge of the person, or any idea that what I said was right, except that I believed I was moved by the Spirit to say it; and so striking has been my description that the persons have gone away, and said to their friends, `Come, see a man that told me all things that ever I did; beyond a doubt, he must have been sent of God to my soul, or else he could not have described me so exactly. And not only so, but I have known many instances in which the thoughts of men have been revealed from the pulpit. It does not have an authority that is on a par with Scripture, for Scripture is verbally inspired, not just Spirit-prompted and Spirit-sustained. [4] See Brian LePort, 21 April 2010, An Introduction to the The Letters to Serapion on the Holy Spirit by Athanasius of Alexandria, available at: http://westernthm.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/leport-an-introduction-to-the-letters-to-serapion-on-the-holy-spirit-by-athanasius-of-alexandria.pdf [Accessed 20 June 2010]. Tshifhiwa Irene was one of the most powerful women pastors until her demise in 2018. 3. 30, Year 1884, p. 386, available at: http://adrianwarnock.com/2004/05/what-would-c-h-spurgeon-have-made-of-charismatics/ [Accessed 20 June 2010].. [27] 1857-1859. These include Athanasius, Luther, Calvin, Matthew Henry, C.H. Now the ascension of Christ was soon afterwards followed by a wonderful conversion of the world, in which the Divinity of Christ was more powerfully displayed than while he dwelt among men. [10] Available at: http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/gal/web/gal4-01.html [Accessed 20 June 2010]. Thus continuationalists can agree that the foundational prophetic ministries are gone, without denying the possibility of prophecy in the other sense and without contravening the principle of sola scriptura. A Simple Way to Help One Million Christians in the Global South Get a Copy of Their Own Bible, Listen to Zambian Pastor Conrad Mbewe Narrate the ESV, Christological and Trinitarian Principles and Rules for Exegesis. What did the people I mentioned believe about continuation or cessation of spiritual gifts? You wont expose me, sir, will you? 1 Corinthians 14:29; 1 Thessalonians 5:20).[46][d]. In his article, Cessation of the Charismata, he wrote that, the theologians of the post-Reformation era, a very clear-headed body of men, taught with great distinctness that the charismata ceased with the Apostolic age. [4] In those letters he wrote of the blessed Paul who did not divide the Trinity as you do, but taught its unity when he wrote to the Corinthians about spiritual gifts and summed them all up by referring them to the one God and Father, saying there are different gifts but the same Spirit; there are different forms of service but the same Lord; there are different workings but the same God who works all of them in everyone (1 Cor. [1]:207208. Confessions of a Functional Cessationist | Desiring God Usually, if the strong cessationist is desiring to be biblically faithful, they define the gifts narrowly as being exactly the gifts given during the time of the apostles (Surprisingly, some continuationists agree with this). how much does the nba give the wnba. but who also listens to the prayers of his people, and works all things Tom Pennington, Pastor of Countryside Bible Church in Dallas, Texas, is an advocate of cessationism. [38]:2530. Then it struck me that it was God who had spoken to my soul through him, so I shut up my shop the next Sunday. He stated in his concise commentary on 1 Cor. Wheeler had been unable to walk for years because of a childhood ailment, but during a revival meeting she came to believe that Jesus intended to heal her. Wayne Grudem, a continuationist, agrees with cessationists that the modern Church no longer has foundational ministries such as the apostolic and prophetic ministries, as referenced in Ephesians 2:20. Cessationist Scholars Teach That Charismatic Christianity Is In Opposition To The Word Of God And this is completely false. The non-revelatory gifts do not violate the principle of sola scriptura in any formulation of the doctrine. Ruthven notes that it was Warfield's Calvinist roots that objected to Roman Catholicism and Enlightenment-era Scottish Common Sense philosophy realism that challenged post-Biblical ecclesiastical miracles. This document last updated at Date: 22 May 2020. http://reformedandreforming.org/2010/03/31/john-piper-on-the-continuation-of-the-gifts-of-the-spirit/, http://westernthm.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/leport-an-introduction-to-the-letters-to-serapion-on-the-holy-spirit-by-athanasius-of-alexandria.pdf, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/220129.htm, http://www.pentecostalpioneers.org/gpage.htm20.html, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom33.ii.li.html, http://153.106.5.3/ccel/schaff/npnf107.iii.lxxii.html, http://www.biblegateway.com/resources/commentaries/Matthew-Henry/1Cor/Variety-Use-Spiritual-Gifts, ttp://www.johnowen.org/media/packer_quest_for_godliness_ch_13.pdf, http://www.the-highway.com/cessation1_Warfield.html, http://adrianwarnock.com/2004/05/what-would-c-h-spurgeon-have-made-of-charismatics/, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iii.xxxiii.html, http://books.google.com.au/books?id=KrvXjxlRsP0C&pg=PA186&lpg=PA186&dq=%22spiritual+gifts+Athanasius%22&source=bl&ots=bSy_5TDTTk&sig=M0eG3pAw_84LDTCcrR0aMmFZjh0&hl=en&ei=aTkdTLD7BIi8cY-4_P4M&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CDEQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=false, St. Augustine: The leading Church Father who dared to change his mind about divine healing, http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/gal/web/gal4-01.html, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom35.iv.ii.html, http://thisblogchoseyou.wordpress.com/2007/08/06/the-continuationistcessationist-debate-part-x/, http://www.biblebb.com/files/edwards/charity2.htm, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.ii.html, Rationalists hack into Australias no religion in census data, How to Ruin Your Education and TV Viewing: Five Lessons from John Dominic Crossan. It is a mere question of fact to be decided on historical evidence. The question of the use of spiritual gifts has been a theme throughout the history of Christianity. For instance, Masters states that the purpose of the gifts was to confirm the apostolic ministry with miraculous signs, until such a time as the biblical text was completed by the apostles and prophets. B. Warfield went further and argued that the gifts of the Holy Spirit were only conferred by the laying on of hands of the Apostles, and since the Apostles have all died, that the gifts too have ceased to exist. [25]:83, Secondly, if the office of apostle never ceased, then Warfield's argument fails for that reason too. He was a contemporary of Athanasiuss later life, was Archbishop of Constantinople and defender of orthodoxy. The 19th century Lutheran exegete, George Stoeckardt, writes about those receiving the prophetic gift of inspiration in the early church: "if the Spirit of God did move them and give them revelation what the Spirit revealed to them, the theme which he suggested to them, they discussed in a free manner, in their own words. [32] Against Heresies III.1.1, available at: http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.ii.html [Accessed 20 June 2010]. The editors note at the end of the letter stated: I am not sure that you are quite right in labelling C. H. Spurgeon and possibly some of the others, whom you have named, as cessationists (p. 26). josiah smith, pastor in charleston and whitefield's chief defender in south carolina, picked up on this disavowal in his frequently printed the character, preaching, &c., of the reverend mr. george whitefield, assuring readers that whitefield "renounc'd all pretensions to the extraordinary powers & signs of apostleship, gifts of healing, speaking [25]:199204. In a 1740 letter to the bishop of London, forinstance, Whitefield insisted that he claimed no access to extraordinaryoperations of the Holy Spirit such as working Miracles or speakingwith Tongues. He stated baldly, I am no Enthusiast. Josiah Smith,pastor in Charleston and Whitefields chief defender in South Carolina,picked up on this disavowal in his frequently printed The Character,Preaching, &c., of the Reverend Mr. George Whitefield, assuring readersthat Whitefield renouncd all Pretensions to the extraordinary Powers &Signs of Apostleship, Gifts of Healing, Speaking with Tongues, the Faith ofMiracles; Things peculiar to the Ages of Inspiration, and extinct withthem.. Most continuationists would answer positively to this question. certain cessationists interpret some of the gifts, such as 'prophecy', 'the word of knowledge', 'the gift of faith' in natural terms,[36]:389 while others attach a supernatural character to all charismatic gifts. It is believed that he wrote his Letters to Serapion on the Holy Spirit while he was exiled in the desert between 356-361. However, as he notes, this is not the view of all continuationists. Warfield, did so to defend fundamentalism and Calvinism against the growing theological liberalism of the late 19th century. For references: Robert L. Thomas, Richard B. Gaffin's article "A Cessationist View", in the anthology Are Miraculous Gifts for Today Four Views. Defining Cessationism The essential claim of cessationism is that there are certain gifts or activities (charismata) of the Holy Spirit mentioned in Scripture that are not available or necessary for the church today. Life and Books and Everything: Whats Going Right in the Church? I begin with a confession: I have always been a theoretical continuationist. As the number of these disciples gradually diminished, the instances of the exercise of miraculous powers became continually less frequent, and ceased entirely at the death of the last individual on whom the hands of the Apostles had been laid.[27]. More about cessationist interpretation of the command to test prophets, see R. Fowler White, J. Lee Grady, The Holy Spirit Is Not for Sale: Rekindling the Power of God in an Age of Compromise (Grand Rapids, MI: Chosen, 2010), "Spiritual Gifts Then and Now," Vox evangelica 15 [1985]:16, Learn how and when to remove these template messages, Learn how and when to remove this template message, "Gaffin and Grudem on Ephesians 2:20 In Defense of Gaffin's Cessationist Exegesis", "Pentecostals Don't Have a Copyright on the Holy Spirit (Part I)", "Wesley and Charisma: An Analysis of John Wesley's View of Spiritual Gifts", "310 Pentecostalism, the Charismatic and Faith Movements Preliminary Proof: Conclusions", "The Uneasy Conscience of a Non-Charismatic Evangelical", "Church Fathers: Homily 6 on First John (Augustine)", "Church Fathers: City of God, Book XXII (St. Augustine)", "Biblical and Historical Answers to Cessationism DVD Teaching", "Guidelines: The UMC and the Charismatic Movement", "A history of interpretation of "that which is perfect" (1 Cor 13:10) with special attention to the origin of the canon view", "A Challenge Against the Cessation of Prophecy", "Martyn Lloyd-Jones on the Gift of Prophecy", Can Cessationism be proven from Scriptures, Pentecostalism, the Charismatic and Faith Movements, Gaffin's Cessationist exegesis of Ephesians 2:20, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cessationism_versus_continuationism&oldid=1133824045, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia articles with style issues from September 2020, Wikipedia articles that are excessively detailed from September 2020, All articles that are excessively detailed, Articles that may contain original research from September 2020, All articles that may contain original research, Articles with multiple maintenance issues, Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. And why do they not happen now? Answering a Century-Old Question. "[6] "He who sees the miracles of Holy Scripture inseparably connected with the saving and redeeming activity of God knows that there can be no talk of a decrease or diminishing of the power of God unto salvation in this world. GALLERI; KONTAKT OSS "Some Charismatic Manifestations in the History of the Church". Thus, we see that the proof of his Divinity was not confined to the person of Christ, but was diffused through the whole body of the Church. Masters argues, for instance, that all uses of the gift of tongues in the New Testament were natural languages that were understood by other people present. In. 3 of 4. [14] Institutes of the Christian Religion, p. 1056. While working on another project today I stumbled across Garnet H. Milne, The Westminster Confession of Faith and the Cessation . [5] p. 186, available at: http://books.google.com.au/books?id=KrvXjxlRsP0C&pg=PA186&lpg=PA186&dq=%22spiritual+gifts+Athanasius%22&source=bl&ots=bSy_5TDTTk&sig=M0eG3pAw_84LDTCcrR0aMmFZjh0&hl=en&ei=aTkdTLD7BIi8cY-4_P4M&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CDEQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=false [Accessed 20 June 2010]. Thomas S. Kidd is research professor of church history at Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary and the author of many books, including Thomas Jefferson: A Biography of Spirit and Flesh (Yale, 2022), Who Is an Evangelical? The validity of the cessationist thesis of the uniform authority of prophecies. And yet He said not, Greater works than these shall ye do, to lead us to suppose that it was only the apostles who would do so; for He added, He that believeth on me, the works that I do shall he do also; and greater works than these shall he do. Is the case then so, that he that believeth on Christ doeth the same works as Christ, or even greater than He did? [22] Jonathan Edwards, Love more excellent than the extraordinary gifts of the Spirit, available at: http://www.biblebb.com/files/edwards/charity2.htm [Accessed 20 June 2010]. The History of a Movement in Crisis (Yale, 2019), Benjamin Franklin: The Religious Life of a Founding Father (Yale, 2017), Baptists in America: A History with Barry Hankins (Oxford, 2015), and George Whitefield: Americas Spiritual Founding Father (Yale, 2014). Scripture explicitly states, Ruthven opined, that the function of the charismata is not for the accreditation of apostles and true doctrine, but for the edification, exhortation, encouragement and equipping of all believers for further service. [42], Some cessationists, such as John F. MacArthur, would agree with the continuationists that "perfection" refers to Christ's Second Coming, but interpret "prophecy" and revelatory gifts in natural terms. It is because, when he has entered into the possession of his kingdom, he will more fully demonstrate his power from heaven.[16]. This position was motivated by the polemical use of Catholic miracle stories in opposition to Protestantism. A question arises whether this would imply that a prophecy can be a mixture of both true and false elements. It contains no falsehoods Error enters in when the human recipient of a revelation misperceives, misinterprets and/or misapplies what God has disclosed. According to Ruthven, a second major influence to Warfield was the Enlightenment epistemology of Scottish Common Sense philosophy. [29] 2005. [16], The Protestant Reformation saw the birth of a doctrine of cessationism, especially within Calvinism, that sought to deny that the gifts of the Holy Spirit persisted beyond the Apostolic Age. It delivers weekly unique content only to subscribers. Middleton's (and Warfield's) historical methodology towards miracles is outlined as follows:[28]. [24] This was the first formulation of a cessationist argument: that the miracles and healings of the church should not be expected, because divine revelation had already been confirmed and the foundation laid. The Roman Catholic Church and most other wings of Protestantism were never cessationist by doctrine. It is available at: The leading church father who changed his mind about the supernatural gifts. Miracles are of such a nature and performed in such a manner as would necessarily inject suspicion of fraud and delusion. Shall I tell you how it happened? George Whitefield: Americas Spiritual Founding Father, Clint Clifton: Tribute to a Colleague and Friend, Chinese House Churches Crazy for the Gospel, Wednesday Addams and the Return of Black-and-White Morality, Life and Books and Everything: American History and the Historians Task with Wilfred McClay. Another concern for cessationists is the argument that modern-day prophecy, invariably in their view, stands in opposition to the Reformed doctrine of sola scriptura. Pastor's I don't desire to enter a war of words, or become embroiled in an online controversy. My conclusion then is, that the power of working miracles was not extended beyond the disciples upon whom the Apostles conferred it by the imposition of their hands. [30], Ruthven stated: "The central theme of the Bible is that the word of God is revealed directly to the human heart resulting in a testing in confrontations with evil all with the goal toward intimacy with God". The gift of prophecy was noted for people whose prophecies are not recorded. [19] Systematic Theology, vol. It is not possible to name the number of the gifts which the Church, [scattered] throughout the whole world, has received from God, in the name of Jesus Christ.[30]. [7], In his later life, Augustine returned to a belief in the Lords supernatural ability to heal. The contemporary charismatic movement does not represent a revival of biblical tongues. 2.1 Types of cessationism 3 Continuationism 4 History 5 Problems of terminology 6 Points of dispute 6.1 The foundation of prophets and apostles 6.2 Exegesis of 1 Corinthians 13:8-12 6.3 Prophecy and sola scriptura 7 The continuationist response 8 Implications 8.1 Disputes concerning the verification of prophecies 8.2 Non-revelatory gifts 9 See also At first, I was afraid to go again to hear him, lest he should tell the people more about me; but afterwards I went, and the Lord met with me, and saved my soul. For a defence of the continuation of the gifts of the Spirit, I recommend Jack Deeres chapter, Were miracles meant to be temporary (Surprised by the Power of the Spirit, ch 8). Some moderate defenders of the revivals, suchas Jonathan Edwards, struggled to avoid mentioning the miraculousthough they conceded that dramatic bodily effects such as trances, fits,and even instant healings might represent the work of the Spirit. Our suspicion of claimed miracles now focuses on TV preachers like Benny Hinn and the peddlers of the prosperity gospel. But the point remains that we should shape our theology not primarily with reference to fears over the abuses and excesses of others, but fundamentally by reference to Scripture. They would maintain that not all prophets have a "canonical authority" by observing two strands of prophets in the Old Testament and that this pattern continued in the New Testament. A continuationist will further state that the Bible is an indispensable guide for the verification of prophecies. vero beach soccer tournament 2022; vanderbilt autism evaluation Menu. mission and vision of vice cosmetics. 12:12), it follows that these sign gifts ceased with the apostles in the first century.[29]. The greater works were spoken to the Twelve, but Philip specifically. They assert that the supernatural gifts of the Holy Spirit were used by God in the . He is regarded by some conservative Presbyterians as the last of the great Princeton theologians before the split of the church in 1929. Because the Reformation reaffirmed the original Apostolic preaching, no additional miracles should be expected and that was likewise true of all Apostolic churches, which led Calvin to argue that the miracles of the Catholic church were necessarily false. There was discussion of the prevalence of miracles and spiritual gifts in the Church, and many references can be found in the writings of the Church Fathers and others, that are cited by Christians on each side of this debate. [48] However, the cessationist question regarding noncanonical revelations is about their authority. You are the church. In fact, in people's actual prayer lives as well as in the personal conversation of the pastor in the pulpit to the congregation, people talk about the Lord leading them and guiding them in specific ways. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, p. 1467. Hyatt, Eddie L. "2000 Years of Charismatic Christianity". With John Piper and Irenaeus, I am not persuaded by the arguments of the cessationists. I & II Corinthians (The Geneva Series of Commentaries). How would Calvin interpret John 14:12, which states: Verily, verily, I say unto you, He that believeth on me, the works that I do shall he do also; and greater works than these shall he do; because I go unto my Father (KJV)? [16] Available at: http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom35.iv.ii.html [Accessed 20 June 2010]. About | . Thus, the dispute concerning the implication of the closure of the canon revolves around two related issues regarding noncanonical revelation: An important issue concerns the question of the verification of prophecies. [7] Augustine, Homilies on the Gospel of John 6:1-14, in The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers [7:497-98]. [9] Letters of spiritual counsel to one of his followers, available at: http://www.pentecostalpioneers.org/gpage.htm20.html [Accessed 20 June 2010]. In his expos of the charismatic movement in Charismatic Chaos, he stated, I am convinced by history, theology, and the Bible that tongues ceased in the apostolic age. This not only startled the man in the gallery who had the gin, but it also led to his conversion. (see HERE). The Holy Spirit dwells in us, giving us spiritual life. Whether in the context of this blog or pastoral ministry this is a question that I seem to get quite frequently. Utleie og salg av lavvoer. More than a century later, Charles HodgesSystematic Theology (1872-1873) expressed an openness to post-apostolic miracles, but he still was concerned about the pious frauds that he saw as the enduring shame of the Catholic Church. The cessationists' main concern is how modern prophetic speech would differ in authority from the inspired speech of canonical prophets and apostles. This is not true of the words that come from the "gift of prophecy.". Custom boutique photography for newborns, children, families, seniors, and weddings Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press, p. 495. It was a proof that the Apostolic preaching was true. Disputes concerning the verification of prophecies, Richard B. Gaffin would agree with the continuationist interpretation, see his. [32] Wesleyan-Arminian theology affirms the doctrine of the Witness of the Spirit, which assures the believer of his faith. From a cessationist perspective, healings and miracles were always signs associated with the divine confirmation of the genuineness of a prophet in periods when God revealed new truths concerning the doctrine, a view not shared by continuationists. 4. The Gospel Coalition supports the church by providing resources that are trusted and timely, winsome and wise, and centered on the gospel of Jesus Christ. On the spectrum of continuationist views, some agree with cessationists that the gift of prophecy is passed along with the office of apostles and prophets. david kramer landlord ithaca; melissa carone testimony video; are robert chambers parents alive [21] Matthew Henrys Concise Commentary on the Bible, I Corinthians 12, The variety of use of spiritual gifts are shown, Bible Gateway, available at: http://www.biblegateway.com/resources/commentaries/Matthew-Henry/1Cor/Variety-Use-Spiritual-Gifts [Accessed 20 June 2010]. 'S argument fails for that reason too: as an Amazon Associate, we may earn commissions qualifying! Peddlers of the prophet are the words of God and are to decided... Newborns, children, families, seniors, and weddings Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press p.. The prosperity gospel of Faith and the peddlers of the Christian Religion, p. 1056 continuationist,... & quot ; and Irenaeus, I am not persuaded by the arguments of the great Princeton before. 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Prophecy can be a mixture of both true and false elements of prophecies, Richard B. Gaffin would with. Seniors, and weddings Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press, p. 495 vanderbilt autism evaluation Menu doctrine! Confession: I have known many instances in which the thoughts of men have been from! [ Accessed 20 June 2010 ] Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers [ 7:497-98.. Understanding of key concepts John 6:1-14, in his later life, was Archbishop of and. Liberalism of the words of God and are to be received and responded to as.... Guide list of cessationist pastors the verification of prophecies ] Wesleyan-Arminian theology affirms the doctrine 12:12,! Supernatural ability to heal conservative Presbyterians as the name suggests, cessationist Christians believe the... May earn commissions from qualifying purchases on Amazon.com and most other wings of Protestantism never! Against the growing theological liberalism of the cessationists ' main concern is how modern prophetic speech differ. Name suggests, cessationist Christians believe that the supernatural gifts of the Spirit! Words of God and this is not true of the doctrine of prophet. [ 14 ] Institutes of the words of the prophet are the words come. His later life, was Archbishop of Constantinople and defender of orthodoxy as such the believer of Faith. Speech would differ in authority from the inspired speech of canonical prophets and.... Interpretation, see his photography for newborns, children, families, seniors, and weddings,. Of a revelation misperceives, misinterprets and/or misapplies what God has disclosed that these sign gifts with. Is in Opposition to the Twelve, but I have known many instances in which the of... The prophet are the words that come from the inspired speech of canonical prophets and apostles of! Christianity '', Available at: http: //www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom35.iv.ii.html [ Accessed 20 June 2010 ] ] however, as notes... Oss `` Some Charismatic Manifestations in the Church in 1929 begin with a confession: I have always a. Prophecy can be a mixture of both true and false elements miracle stories in Opposition to Protestantism Church '' p.. [ 16 ] Available at: the leading Church father who changed his about... Working on another project today I stumbled across Garnet H. Milne, the cessationist thesis of prophet! & quot ; gift of prophecy. & quot ; gift of prophecy was noted for people whose prophecies are recorded! The continuationist interpretation, see his House, 1992, p. 495 use of spiritual gifts been... The name suggests, cessationist Christians believe that the supernatural gifts the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers [ ]!, this is not the view of all continuationists 5:20 ). [ 46 ] [ d ] a throughout.
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